civilization, including education (Whitehead, 2005). This fear is also expressed by a Bouganvillian: Land is our life. The Deputy Commissioners, in turn, exercised their authority through the traditional leadership of chieftainship. They felt that: Knowing nothing whatever about tropical administration in a country of mostly primitive people, he sought advice; but instead of going to the experienced administration officials and the pioneer Europeans, he shut himself away behind an extraordinary group of scientists, academicians and New Planners--well-meaning and honest, but thoroughly impractical people--who were thrilled to the marrow at this unique chance of shaping for the eager and unchecked leftist Minister, a new paradise on earth for natives. The reference to "integral human development" in the national constitution was designed to highlight the fact that the western model(s) of development which might have been good for the German, British and Australian colonisers were not necessarily relevant to PNG's political, social, economic, cultural and educational needs; and that political independence had provided PNG with an opportunity to define "development" in its own distinctive way. As we have pointed out, these do not mimic capitalism or preserve tradition, nor are they some average, some balance between the two. The paper is reprinted from the International Journal of University Adult Education 24 (2) (1987). There will also be conclusion/refl ections at the end of the chapter. Thirdly, it is maintained that as a Third World country, PNG lacks the resources to develop in an autonomous fashion, and has to rely on aid and advice from the international community, most notably from Australia. They were often manipulated by the colonial officials in supporting positions that were not in the interests of the villages they represented. Effectively, this meant the construction of a new relationship between Australia and the emerging nation, based on a functional division of power. Also, they often set one tribe against another in order to keep disputes going so that they could retain their own influence and control. Its defeat simply hastened the process, leading in 1919 to a proclamation and imposition of Australian military rule in New Guinea (Reed, 1983). The Foot, Currie and the World Bank reports proved to be highly influential in shaping PNG policies and programs. The Directive does not provide any clear guidance as to the way Papua New Guineans might reconcile the diverse "PNG ways" and at the same time live with the ubiquitous western cultural pressures. Stage 4 (the drive to maturity) when 10 to 20 per cent of the national income is invested, the use of consumer technology becomes widespread and an impression is made on the capitalist world economy. The Britain gave a lot of support to them but the fact was that the Government in India and Britain Walt Rostow (1960), an economic historian and adviser to the American government, assumes that in order for the "backward nations" to be modernised they have to go through these "stages of development". First, there was the emerging global thinking at the time that, on moral grounds alone, all people should have the right to self-government. No longer are colonial activities linked to the desire of one nation-state to conquer another and control its means of production. It is clear that colonialism does not admit a single definition: it has many different historically specific forms. Foreign debts to the international financial institutions continue to increase which makes the debted countries' economies even more dependent on them. The ruling group can be either similar or different in their way of life from those who are ruled. This Agreement had stipulated that Australia was to ensure that the indigenous customs were protected; that their rights and possessions were not taken away from them; that Australia was to educate the indigenous people; and that it was to ensure that the locals participated in running the affairs of the Territory. Without stipulating at this point anything too weighty or too precise, this can also certainly seem to apply to man and his social situations. But arguably economic interests were more important. Each was concerned with the building of its own empire. The first European attempt at colonization was made in 1793 by Lieut. For many people in PNG, the organisational structure of the tribe is often more significant than that of the national or provincial government. Many of these criticisms are analytical and often focus on the ethnocentricity of much of the field of study that has become known as "development studies". To them, it is strange that Europeans, Asians or Pacific Islanders can also become citizens of PNG through immigration. Local societies have undergone--and continue to experience--quite profound internal changes as a result of socio-economic developments, including processes of class formation. While humanitarian or philanthropic motives are still invoked, it is clear they have become secondary to a concern for economic gains. The coastal areas are known for their vast areas of swamps. In the colonies, capital accumulation was possible in a context of extremely favourable labour conditions. ANGAU was a creation of an Australian Labor Party (ALP) Government, whose Minister for External Affairs, Mr Ward, sought to re-orient Australian policies in Papua and New Guinea away from economic exploitation to a focus on the welfare of the indigenous people. This chapter seeks to provide a general account of colonialism and development in Papua New Guinea (PNG) as a background to the research on devolution within education. O'Collins 1993:(67-68) contends: Aid in the form of direct grants, training programmes, visiting experts, and consultants has many faces and many effects on those who are the recipients. Also, the traditional methods of exchange, such as the barter system, were gradually replaced by money, and the indigenous people began to use the concept of "exchange of money" amongst themselves. The four lines follow no clear geographic boundaries. In 1616, Maire and Schouten sailed the northern coast and then across the Bismark Sea to New Ireland. It assumes that the stages of development are already defined; that all human societies must go through these stages; and that a linear historical order defines the terms in which a society's development must be measured. Using modernisation theory, Alavi and Shanin (1982) suggest that Third World countries are thus referred to as "backward nations", while colonies remaining under Europeans are "emergent nations" upon independence and "developing countries" thereafter (cited in Spybey, 1992:21). Firstly, it is argued that Papua and New Guinea is an historical artefact constructed through the processes of colonialism. The other 15 percent of Papua and New Guineans are urban dwellers who work and/or live in towns and cities like Port Moresby, Alotau, Kerema, Daru, Poponetta, Lae, Madang, Wewak, Vainimo, Hagen, Wabag, Goroka, Rabaul, Kimbe, Kavieng and Lorengau. We want investors with reputations as good neighbours, fair employers and development benefactors. As trading activities became intensified, the indigenous people further accumulated Western goods as substitutes for their own. The administrative system that the Papuan colonial authorities set up was concerned solely with the issues of law and order, and owed much to the British colonial experience in the Western Pacific, especially Fiji. Each tribe has its own culture. However, the legacy of colonialism in PNG is not only political and economic, it is also ideological. Few previously colonised countries deny the importance of development, but there are major debates about what this development should comprise, and how it should proceed. The indigenous people were thus brought into a new economic system which required them to earn cash in order to receive material goods. Much of the public debate in PNG revolves around the issue of what counts as the most effective program of development. This system of justice and administration, based on a network of central and regional centres of power, later became the foundation for the creation of the state of Papua New Guinea. Gunnar Myrdal, who was the first theorist to put forward this model, argued that the notion of development referred to the general improvement within the entire social system which makes a society distinctive. To meet these challenges, the Somare Government embarked on a series of government policies which aimed to overcome two of the colonial legacies: the first concerned the apparent contradiction between the high degree of centralisation of political and administrative powers and the policy intention was to provide for the wider participation in decision-making in the political process; and the second, focussed on the problem of the great inequality in the distribution of wealth and government goods and services (Axline, 1988). Finally, the Report criticised Australia for being tardy in promoting the Territory's political development. Stage 5 (high consumption) when the mass production of the consumer goods dominates the economy and a large surplus is created ... Modernisation theory assumes the validity of these stages, which first emerged during the Industrial Revolution, and matured in one of the most powerful capitalist countries in the world, the United States. Moreover, as Pinto (1962:81) argues: Dependency can easily become a pseudo-concept which explains everything in general and hence nothing in particular. Yet, we still use the same education systems that oppressed us to educate a free people. The principle suggests that: Every person should dynamically be involved in the process of freeing himself or herself from every form of domination or oppression so that each man and woman will have the opportunity to develop as a whole person in relationship with others. Although the government benefits from the activities of these entrepreneurs (through the collection of taxes, for example), the people in the villages do not always get any direct benefits. It also suggests that it is a mistake to assume that everyone is affected by colonialism in the same way. Many of the foreign companies investing in PNG are engaged in large-scale projects, leaving little opportunity for the development of smaller indigenous companies. In 1962, a United Nations Visiting Team toured PNG and made an assessment on the status of the political, economic and educational development of the Territory. Also, discussions of colonialism do not always clearly distinguish between different aspects of the problem: for example, the conditions which led to the emergence of colonialism; the motives for colonial adventure; the approaches and processes of its realisation; and the effects of colonialism in terms of its benefits and problems, both for the colonisers and the colonised (Fieldhouse, 1981). Henningham and May (1992:1) further maintain: Hundreds have been killed, property worth millions of dollars has been destroyed or damaged, production at one of the world's largest copper and gold mines has ceased, and the political stability and integrity of the largest of the Pacific Island countries has been challenged. Only those who obtained the new western-style education were regarded as educated, since only they could meet the demands of the newly created State. The model assumes that all development takes place along a linear scale. These are individuals who retain considerable economic interests in the country which they could be expected to protect from their positions of power. These were centres where the colonial administration established its offices, the purpose of which was to provide "conducive working environments" and facilitate the various objectives of the agents of "development": missionaries, traders, settlers, planters and so on (Reed, 1983). ... is still in customary (clan) ownership. ... Its history, both in colonial and post ­colonial times, was weak. Abstract. (Biskup, Jinks & Nelson, 1968:129). The same applies to a range of cognate terms, for example, social change, growth, evolution, progress, advancement and modernisation (Fagerlind and Saha, 1989:4). To understand the origins of colonialism in PNG, it is necessary to examine historically the rapid expansion of colonial activity in the late nineteenth century. A complex system of customary land ownership hampers the mobilisation for development. In 1919, Australia, under an Agreement of the League of Nations, assumed responsibilities for the administration of New Guinea. On record are numerous instances of resistance and conflict over rights, ownership, usage and boundaries (Nelson, 1968:52). In the 1900s, these activities grew in scale and in profits. Furthermore, within PNG, Indonesia is widely believed to be pursuing expansionist policies. These ideological beliefs articulated with economic interests, since it was believed that for the indigenous people to become "productive" workers they needed the prerequisite beliefs and attitudes that only Christianity could provide. The European planters, traders and other expatriates in the unified colony accused the Government of "selling out" to sectional interests within Australia which had no understanding of the Territory and its problems. %PDF-1.6 %���� In all, some 8,000 Australian public servants were recruited during 1949-1975 with almost half of them choosing to stay on in PNG after independence and a small number of them remaining in the country as immigrants. It saw its role as being restricted to policing; to maintaining social conditions necessary to maintain "orderly" economic activity (West, 1966:45). Between 1884 and 1914, New Guinea was annexed and ruled by Germany or its colonial agencies (Firth, 1986). In the next chapter, I examine the concept of devolution as it relates to the ways education is administered in Papua New Guinea. The expatriates needed to create an economic environment necessary for capital accumulation and quick profits. h�b```f``�c`a`�sc`@ &�(G#�#��`d`�ѹ�!��f��������e�4,�P޼q֜j����|-u&��7ug-۔�K���KS����9s�̞=gN!14 nh`� B"�h b�Tt��@�� t�,c2cc,�3�c.����錳/�U�0H���@1݆�8�A�� D��@� vDO� endstream endobj 146 0 obj <> endobj 147 0 obj <>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB]/XObject<>>>/Rotate 0/Type/Page>> endobj 148 0 obj <>stream Thus, PNG continues to place considerable emphasis on the need for foreign investment, permitting the exploitation of its land and sea resources. These valuable resources have far too long been extracted by a number of unscrupulous foreign companies, with no commitment to ensuring the sustainability of the resources or to building up domestic capacity or downstream processing ... Let me emphasise here and now this Government is not against foreign investment, quite the opposite; we are fully aware that we need the capital and skills of various overseas companies to assist in the development of our resources and our own capacity. There was also debate about the kind of development that was appropriate for the Territory and about the level of infrastructure investment that Australia could afford (Beazley, 1968). They share closer cultural and family ties with the tribes in PNG than with the people of Indonesia (Dorney, 1990: 247-285). The Papua Act remained in force until 1949 when Papua was amalgamated with New Guinea to form Papua and New Guinea. In the language of post-modernism, colonialism rests on the assumptions of a grand narrative which implies the essential superiority of Western institutions of technology, cash-oriented economy and education system over all other forms. The census shows that 85 percent of the population lives in the rural area (World Bank Report 1988:xi). In particular, the Report criticised the principle of gradualism in educational development. 1972: The NGO SIL International gives training to Ernest Kilalang and other Tolais in developing vernacular literacy materials. In many Third World countries, there is an emerging view that it is the Western financial institutions and their agencies which now dictate the terms in which the notion of development should be understood (Hettne, 1990). This speculative philosophy suggests a metaphysical view of development over which human beings would appear to have little control. For us to be completely landless is a nightmare with no dollar in the pocket, dollar in the bank with allay; we are threatened people". It was a hierarchical relationship which did not give any formal recognition to traditional leadership. The capital, manpower and technology come in the form of foreign aid either as grants or loans. This was clearly incompatible with the traditional political systems. What implications does this have for the attempts to institute democratic reforms in PNG educational administration? They see themselves as people of New Ireland, Manus, East New Britain, Papuans or Highlanders. One of the directives of development in PNG is Equality and Participation as outlined in the National Constitution (see Appendix 2 on Five Directive Principles). The spread of Christianity and the conflict between its various sects during this period, were also factors in rapid colonial expansion. The PNG Government has insisted that the nation's economy should be basically self-reliant (Economic Policies and Strategies, 1991:2). The World Bank Report also acknowledged the important and continuing role of the European public servants in educational and agricultural development. In most colonised countries, this has resulted in the formation of a dual or mixed economy (Brookfield, 1972). Instead, the contemporary expressions of colonialism are now linked to the global movement of capital and to the activities of large multinational companies. In an effort to provide a definition, Fletcher (1976:43) notes that: ... however, "development" can mean the actualisation of our implicit potentiality, the simplest example being the pattern growth and maturation of a seed, or an initial germ cell, to the full adult form of the individual plant, or animal or human person. The developing countries thus confront a major contradiction in relation to the aid and loan agencies. Such a bureaucracy was considered essential for achieving the State's cohesion and the nation's identity. Associated Projects But there was little in the way of consultation with the villagers and local communities who had come to accept centralised decision-making as natural and inevitable. Not surprisingly, this government view is shared by the World Bank Report (1988:xi) which has argued: PNG faces major development challenges in the years ahead. Downs (1980:116) argues: "Localisation" of the Public Service (meaning the employment of nationals) was frequently the subject of ministerial direction and frustrating delay. Mt Wilhem, the highest peak in PNG, rises to the height of 4,500 metres. West Papuans constantly launch guerilla warfare against Indonesia from the PNG soil (Osbourne, 1986). As Korten (1992:71) maintains: The multilateral banks are in fact rather good at doing what they were created to do, which is to advance the international trade and investment agenda. As already pointed out, PNG's colonial system of administration was established partly for the purposes of pacification and the enforcement of law and order. The usage and transfer of land are governed by unwritten customary laws and practices administered by the leaders of various tribes. Ministerial Review Committee on the Philosophy of Education. At the same time, however, they fuelled minor disputes in order to establish their own authority, and to garner economic favours. Boehan (1987) argues that in order to understand the factors which led to the Europeans' scramble for colonisation, we need to look at the political, economic and social conditions in 19th-century Europe. It provides the legal and administrative framework which binds different parts of the nation together. While Balandier's view of colonialism is couched in terms that seem dated now, his observation that colonialism needs to be understood as an ideological phenomenon is still relevant, and is applicable to contemporary expressions of colonialism. The outside world was now being asked to provide the resources for educational development. In colonising nations, there are often political criticisms from various sections of the community of colonial adventures and exploitation on both economic and moral grounds. Third World countries continue to export raw materials and sell them at cheap prices to the industrialised countries. However, in 1901, Britain sought to transfer the responsibility of governing Papua to Australia. The decline of feudalism and the rise of capitalism made it necessary to exploit the natural resources of the regions outside Europe. Rather, it was created for the administrative convenience of the colonisers (Bonney, 1982). There was a tremendous demand for education that was far beyond the ability of the missions to provide. This supposedly illegal movement of people and the exploration of oil and gas in the region, as well as increased drug smuggling, are causing considerable friction between the Australian and PNG governments. Rather, they are contemporary indigenous forms, which need to be described and analyzed with regard for both their links to and their differences from the capitalist world surrounding them. It can be viewed as a form of cultural dominance which involves the substitution of the way of life of the colonised by traditions that the colonisers assume to be inherently superior. It can thus be argued that colonialism has re-emerged as an international phenomenon (Sivanandan, 1991). This process is cyclical, but nonetheless universal in its historical character. To disseminate otherwise or republish, requries written permission. This Marxist view suggests that it was capitalism which gave rise to and facilitated colonialism. Larrain (1991) has suggested that Marx shared the view that it was justifiable historically for the "backward" nations to be "liberated" through industrialisation. In PNG, there does not appear to be a determined political movement to change the name by which the country is currently identified, though the issue has been talked about in general terms from time to time. It must be rejected because it is based on the colonisers’ false entitlement to define what knowledge is (Ramose, 1999: iii). The policies concerning the need to develop a largely western education system have become institutionalised. So, while most Third World countries welcome aid, there is now an emerging concern that the relationship that defines the provision of aid is constituted by the exercise of a new form of power over the Third World countries. It is not surprising, therefore, that the current economies of the newly independent nations in Latin America (Sweezy, 1992), Africa, (Patnaik, 1990) Asia (Sweezy, 1992) and the Pacific (Luteru, 1991) continue to depend heavily on the international financial institutions such as the World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF), Asian Development Bank (ADB) and multi-national corporations. The availability of land is particularly important for major economic sectors (agriculture, forestry, mining). It is this framework which now provides a context in which the politics of devolution are played out. Spybey (1992:113) suggests that: The success of the European states in setting up their colonial empires gave Europeans a tremendous sense of their own superiority. In a sense, they assumed, without any doubt, the necessity of European contribution to the development of PNG's political, economic, administrative and educational policies. Foreign capital often comes with a range of conditions within the framework of which the government is able to develop its domestic policies. The traders sought to "develop" timber, copra and beche-de-mer industries. As already pointed out, Papua New Guinea as a nation was historically constructed to serve a range of colonial interests. The political independence of PNG will become largely symbolic if the fundamental political and economic decisions are steered by foreigners as advisers, as consultants or as business executives; or indeed if the local political and economic elites--the politicians and public servants--simply become the spokespersons for foreign interests. Papua New Guinea is a nation of many tribes. Balandier sees colonialism as a political phenomenon. All matters to do with internal affairs were transferred to the PNG House of Assembly, with Australia retaining the responsibility over PNG's external affairs, defence and trade. The political leaders of PNG thus recognised that despite political independence, which had supposedly marked the end of colonialism, the task of shifting the colonial administrative structures, which had become firmly rooted in the very formation of the nation-state, would not be an easy one. For most Papuans and New Guineans, the concept of citizenship is a foreign one. Also, they have an ambiguous relationship with Australia. Many people find it difficult to continue to identify with village society and at the same time become members of the modern institutions. The surplus products and capital intensified the efforts of the colonial powers to establish new markets outside Europe, that is, for trade to extend to other parts of the world, in particular the African, Asian and Pacific regions. Hettne (1990:2) argues: ... there can be no fixed and final definition of development, only suggestions of what development should imply in particular contexts. Each division was looked after by a Resident Magistrate, whose basic role was to co-ordinate patrols and expeditions, to investigate disturbances, to hold trials and to issue appropriate punishments. We welcome respectable businesses which are prepared to make long term commitment here and genuinely have something to offer. Another response to the Foot Report was the establishment in 1965 of a Committee of ten advisers from the World Bank to recommend ways to improve the Territory's economy and its industries (Downs, 1980). While the Territory of Papua and New Guinea from the year 1884 passed through several forms of British and German, civil and military government, mission native education, first set up in the Territory in 1872, developed through four consecutive phases. Axline (1988: 72) argues: These systems were highly centralised, with most of the power located either in Port Moresby or in the Australian Department of External Territories in Canberra (Ballard, 1981). There was considerable debate within Australia about how it might define the scope of its relationship with the Territory of Papua and New Guinea, for Australia clearly faced a number of political dilemmas between its economic interests on the one hand, and its humanitarian commitments to the UN on the other. Between 1919-21, Australia retained the administrative system that had been established by the German administration before the War (Reed, 1983). Indeed, it is misleading to suggest that these traditional cultures are somehow unchanged by the colonial presence in the country. The extent to which PNG is in a position to construct its own definition of development is an open question, and dictates the parameters of PNG politics. A dependency relationship had been created: the villagers had felt that the central administration would provide the goods and services they needed. However, while expressions of colonialism are complex and historically specific, it is nevertheless possible to identify some of the ways in which contemporary forms of colonialism differ from its earlier forms. There is a dual salary scale for expatriates and indigenous public servants, and the expatriates are also given other privileges such as free education for their children, return airfares every two years, free rent or subsidised accommodation, and gratuities after the completion of their contracts. Prior to the amalgamation of Papua as an Australian protectorate and New Guinea as a UN Trust Territory in 1949, both colonies were administered from Canberra. However, while this arrangement might have worked in Fiji, it did not in Papua, because chieftainship, in so far as it existed, worked very differently in Papua. This topography of the land presents major challenges for the PNG government, especially with respect to its capacity to provide in some equitable manner the quantity and quality of goods and services required by the people. At the village level, a system of village constables was established whose role was to ensure that Resident Magistrates' decisions were implemented. That is, it maintained a system that involved the appointment in every village of a luluai and a tultul, ensuring the maintenance of colonial control over the villagers. As such, it has been r… Waiko (1993:254-255) maintains: Most Papua New Guineans still live in societies which have many of the characteristics of the Stone Age. In 1974 and immediately after independence in 1975, the PNG public service witnessed a major exodus of the expatriate heads of departments. His historicist world-view led him to believe that capitalism was a necessary stage in the eventual enlightenment of people everywhere. 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